The United Nations expert panel stated that "the conflict in Yemen, which began a decade ago as an internal armed conflict and then expanded into a regional confrontation, has now escalated into a major international crisis." Hence, this transformation is almost akin to "hybrid warfare" or what is often referred to as fifth-generation warfare.
Experts and analysts point to the features and complexities of hybrid warfare, particularly its ambiguity and the interplay of interventions and confrontations that define it and become one of its main traits. This is because hybrid warfare is not confined to a specific geographic area, nor is it limited to defined actors involved in the conflict.
One of the defining characteristics of this type of warfare, according to the Journal of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, is that it is a "war without rules or constraints." In other words, it is an unrestricted war that disregards battlefield boundaries and makes no distinction between military personnel and civilians or between governmental and non-governmental entities.
On the other hand, some experts argue that hybrid warfare involves a series of hostile actions aimed at deceiving, destabilizing, and influencing societies, thereby undermining stability and pressuring and coercing sovereign governments into submission or replacing them with alternative regimes.
“Hybrid warfare is a type of conflict that employs various forms of warfare simultaneously, in a manner that suits the current circumstances, according to Frank Hoffman’s description.”
Asymmetric Tactics
NATO, for its part, defines hybrid warfare as the employment of asymmetric tactics to achieve both overt and covert objectives. These tactics exploit vulnerabilities through non-military means such as political, media, and economic intimidation, as well as manipulation, while being supported all that by the threat of military force. A key feature of hybrid warfare is its detachment from clearly identifiable parties, characterized instead by ambiguity and uncertainty regarding the nature of military confrontations and the identity of the actors involved.
According to some researchers, the concept of hybrid warfare first emerged in 2007, as a result of changes in military affairs. The first precise use of the concept was by Frank Hoffman, who described hybrid warfare as a type of conflict that employs various forms of warfare simultaneously, in a manner that suits the current circumstances. (Saliha Kababi: Hybrid Wars, 2024).
In October of last year, the UN Panel of Experts on Yemen submitted its report to the United Nations Security Council, covering the period from September 1, 2023, to July 31, 2024.
The report addressed a range of issues and documented numerous violations and actions that threaten security and peace, with the Houthis bearing the largest share of responsibility. This is especially true as they have capitalized on the developments currently unfolding in the region, most notably the Israeli war on Gaza and southern Lebanon. In this context, the Houthi group has emerged as part of the "Axis of Resistance," led by Iran and comprising the ideological and political-military factions allied with Tehran. This shift has added new dimensions to the report prepared by the expert team, reflecting the transformation that has given the Houthis the opportunity to network and coordinate—closer to cooperation and alliance—with other Iranian allies in Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. This alliance currently forms the "Islamic Resistance." While the Houthis have not concealed their ties with Iran and its allies, notably Hezbollah, they have recently made a noticeable presence in Iraq. The expert team's report touches on this, based on various joint statements and data from Houthi leaders and leaders of Iraqi militia groups within the "Axis of Resistance" or "Islamic Resistance." This new framework has become more prominent, particularly after the escalation of Israeli attacks in Gaza and Lebanon.
“The Houthis have adopted a strategy of escalation, transitioning from local to regional military and security actions, which included threatening maritime navigation and transport in the Bab al-Mandab Strait, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aden.”
Major Global Crisis
The transformation of the Houthis from one of the parties in the Yemeni conflict to an active actor within new alliances and formations linked to broader regional developments indicates that the Yemeni war itself has become a hybrid war. The expansion of one of its parties, or the extension of certain actions beyond the traditional boundaries of the conflict, reinforces the conclusion reached by the expert team: the Yemeni war has evolved from a local dispute into regional confrontations, or a proxy war, which has escalated into a highly complex and intertwined conflict.
The expert team’s report notes that the Houthis have adopted a strategy of escalation, transitioning from local to regional military and security actions, which included threatening maritime navigation and transport in the Bab al-Mandab Strait, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aden since October 19, 2023. On the economic front, the Houthis have expanded money transfer networks, strengthened arms smuggling operations, and facilitated the transfer of equipment and technology needed for weapons development, while securing external support that includes training, expertise, weapons maintenance, and upgrades. All of this is carried out in close coordination with their other allies in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon, as well as with the locations of networks, communication points, and transit routes across several countries, spanning various maritime and land corridors and entry points.
As a result, the Houthis now possess new and advanced weaponry, including drones, ballistic missiles, and explosive-laden boats, which enable them to threaten maritime transport in one of the world's most important shipping routes. Additionally, the continued recruitment within their ranks—using the pretext of supporting Palestine and Lebanon—has led to a significant increase in the number of their fighters, reinforcing the frontlines in several Yemeni governorates.
“The interplay and entanglement of the internal and external factors in this war has led to its continuation and expansion, pushing it beyond the boundaries of a traditional conflict into new areas and spaces. This intersection is one of the defining characteristics of hybrid warfare.”
Indicators of Hybrid Warfare
General Gerasimov, Chief of Staff of the Russian Armed Forces, wrote an article on warfare, stating that "war and peace have become concepts whose boundaries are increasingly diminishing." This is another indicator of hybrid warfare. Unlike traditional wars, where the boundaries and lines between war and peace are clear, hybrid warfare involves a significant amount of overlap and entanglement—not only in its parties, territories, and boundaries but even in peace itself, which can harbor the seeds of war. Consequently, this means that the boundaries between war and peace here shrink or vanish due to various factors and influences.
Prior to the war launched by his army against Ukraine in early 2022, Gerasimov himself denied to the Americans and Europeans any intention by his country to attack Ukraine. The same denial was echoed by President Vladimir Putin and other senior Russian officials and leaders. Even after the war broke out, Moscow continues to frame the situation as merely defensive measures necessary to protect Russia’s national security. In this discourse, the boundaries between war and peace, as Gerasimov described, become increasingly blurred, as he speaks of another war not directly fought by his forces.
The UN experts' report concludes that the peace process remains stalled, emphasizing that a roadmap agreement can only be signed when the regional situation is favorable and conducive, and the Houthis cease their attacks on ships in the Red Sea.
In conclusion, the interplay and entanglement of the internal and external factors in this war have led to its continuation and expansion, pushing it beyond the boundaries of a traditional conflict into new arenas and spaces, and this is one of the defining characteristics of hybrid warfare.
